Mechanical activation as a strategy for energy-efficient solid-state synthesis of Zn2SnO4 functional oxides

Guzman, DannyDannyGuzmanTorres, FelipeFelipeTorresSoliz, AlvaroAlvaroSolizGuzman, AlexisAlexisGuzmanPineda, FabiolaFabiolaPinedaMorel, Mauricio J.Mauricio J.MorelShah, Syed IsmatSyed IsmatShahRojas, PaulaPaulaRojas2026-07-072026-07-072026-06CERAMICS INTERNATIONAL, 52(15), 28178-28186 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2026.04.3470272-88421873-3956https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12740/24773The effect of mechanical activation on the thermally assisted solid-state formation of Zn2SnO4 from ZnO and SnO2 precursor powders was investigated. Mechanical activation was performed in a SPEX mill for up to 60 min, and the resulting powders were characterized by XRD, FEG-SEM, and TEM analyses. The kinetic behavior of Zn2SnO4 formation was analyzed using the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov (JMAK) model, while activation energy (E-a) values were determined from Arrhenius plots. Mechanical activation significantly enhanced the formation kinetics of Zn2SnO4, reducing E-a from 277 to 54 kJ mol(-1) and enabling phase formation at lower temperatures and shorter dwell times, which implies a reduction in the thermal energy input required for the solid-state reaction. This improvement can be attributed to an increased defect density, larger surface area, and enhanced interfacial contact between oxides induced by milling, promoting a transition from diffusion-controlled to interface-controlled growth. TEM analysis revealed the presence of Zn2SnO4 and Zn2SnO3 nanocrystals formed during milling, indicating that nucleation occurs prior to thermal treatment. Although the crystal structure remains unchanged (cubic inverse spinel Zn2SnO4), mechanical activation induces microstructural refinement, producing smaller crystallites (similar to 51 nm vs. similar to 73 nm) and finer particle morphologies, which may enhance surface reactivity. These results demonstrate that mechanical activation is an effective strategy to accelerate solid-state reactions while improving the microstructural characteristics of functional oxide materials.Mechanical activationSolid-state synthesisJohnson-mehl-avrami-Kolmogorov (JMAK)modelZn2SnO4Mechanical activation as a strategy for energy-efficient solid-state synthesis of Zn2SnO4 functional oxidesArticulohttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2026.04.347